Surviving Across Borders: Immigration and Sexual Violence

Posted byAnne P. DePrince, PhDPosted inResearchTags:, , , , , , , ,

by Betsy Serrano, TSS Group Member

Note: Throughout this post, the terms “migrant”, “immigrant”, and “undocumented” are used. They are not universal labels, as each term represents a different experience. They are used intentionally to specific contexts and cited research.

During Sexual Assault Awareness Month (SAAM), it’s important to examine the intersection of migration and sexual violence. That’s because the sexual victimization of women extends beyond borders, even in the pursuit of opportunity. In fact, lifetime intimate partner violence (e.g., physical, sexual, emotional) for immigrants in the US range from 14% to 93%, depending on the country of origin (Morrison, et al., 2023).

Sexual violence is common among migrants, in part, because it is often the cause of migration in the first place. For instance, a study of 160 women refuges from El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico found that they migrated due to the risk of rape, assault, and extortion (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2015).

Migrating itself also creates risks of sexual victimization. Studies from humanitarian medical organizations indicate that approximately one in three migrant women report sexual victimization during transit (Médecins Sans Frontières, n.d.). There was also a sevenfold increase in sexual violence for women migrating across the Darién Gap between Columbia and Panama (MSF, 2023). The risk of sexual violence is so much a part of migration journeys that Mexican women have reported actively taking contraceptives to protect against forced pregnancies (Watson, 2006).

The risk of sexual victimization during migration is not unique to Latin American countries. Eritrean women who were passing through Libya to southern Europe reported taking injectable contraceptives to protect against forced pregnancies. They also reported traveling while pregnant or with children to avoid sexual violence and not traveling with their husbands to avoid their husbands being killed if they tried to intervene during sexual violence (Kuschminder, 2018). For migrant young women in Ethiopia and Sudan, there was an increased risk of sexual violence in comparison to males (Mixed Migration Centre, 2025).

Sexual victimization does not necessarily happen in isolation. Due to the high fees and debt bondage imposed by smugglers, migrant women are also at an increased risk for forced labor, forced prostitution, and being coerced into sex as payment for safe passage (Danish Institute for International Studies, 2020).  In fact, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees reported smugglers to be the key perpetrators of violence against migrant women and girls worldwide. It was reported that smugglers were responsible for 90% of gender-based violence incidents along the East and Horn of Africa migration corridor (UNHCR, 2020).

The immigration system within the United States adds to the conditions that make sexual violence possible. Consider that between 2010 and 2016, the Office of Inspector General received over 33,000 complaints of sexual assault or physical abuse across DHS agencies but investigated fewer than 1% of cases (Freedom for Immigrants, n.d.). Within detention settings, 1,016 reports of sexual abuse were filed between May 2014 and July 2016 but only 24 cases (2.4%) were investigated (Freedom for Immigrants, n.d.). These complaints included coerced sexual contact, sexual harassment, and physical or sexual abuse (Freedom for Immigrants, n.d.). Survivors already face several barriers to reporting, and the lack of investigations is yet another invisible barrier. Taken together, these patterns point to serious problems in oversight and limited accountability in immigration detention systems.

Among immigrant survivors in the United States, 65% reported immigration-related abuse (Erez & Ammar, 2003). That is, someone used the victim’s immigration status to control, threaten, or coerce them. This trend still continues today, with 70.3% of advocates reporting that survivors now fear the legal system itself will be used against them (Alliance for Immigrant Survivors, 2025). For migrant women whose residency status is dependent on their partners, the risk of intimate partner violence and underreporting is high due to fear of deportation (Voolma, 2018).

Another form of immigration-related abuse includes withholding filing of legal immigration documents, as 72% of abusive spouses did not file immigration documents when they had the opportunity to do so. For those 28% of abusive spouses who did file, had an average delay of 4 years to file (National Organization for Women, 2017).

Undocumented survivors often face several barriers when seeking support services. Many fear their immigration status will be exposed or exploited if they report (Semple, 2017). Some have also reported being denied due to lack of proper documentation (Erez & Ammar, 2003). These fears are reflected in a 42.8% decrease in sexual assault reporting among Latine survivors in Houston, Texas (Moreno, 2017). In addition, hotline and court interpretation services may not always be available (API, 2019). Other reasons for not reporting gender-based violence include fear of losing employment, partners, or residency status (Robillard et al., (2018).

These barriers also extend into employment and criminal legal contexts. Low-paid migrant farm workers and custodians report not disclosing sexual harassment/assault due to fears of repercussions (UN Women and ILO, 2019). Survivors have been reluctant to interact with law enforcement due to concerns around deportation, information sharing between agencies, and potential police collaboration with ICE (Alliance for Immigrant Survivors, 2025).

In 2000, Congress passed the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act to improve investigation and prosecution of domestic violence, sexual assault, and trafficking cases (USCIS, 2025). The legislation includes protective measures like the U-Visa and T-Visa. The U-Visa applies to undocumented or non-citizen immigrant crime survivors (e.g., rape, sexual assault, stalking) and allows for a temporary emergency visa to live and work in the United States for up to 4 years. However, only 10,000 U Visas are given annually and survivors must cooperate with law enforcement. The T-Visa applies to undocumented survivors of human trafficking who are physically present in the US due to trafficking. They are valid for up to 4 years and similarly requires survivors to cooperate with law enforcement. Only 5,000 T-Visas are issues annually (USCIS, 2025).

Despite protective legislative measures, systemic barriers persist. In Colorado, our research team found that fears related to legal status and deportation increased from 2024 to 2025, adding to barriers to accessing legal services.

Take-Aways

Taken together, immigration-related violence and stress have serious consequences for health. For instance, immigration status has been shown to be a significant predictor of PTSD symptoms. Post-migration stressors such as legal instability, legal expenses, and prolonged asylum processes also affect survivors’ well-being (Chu, Keller & Rasmussen, 2012; Li, Liddel, & Nickerson, 2016).

With all of this in mind, survivors need tangible support. No matter your role, each of us can make a difference. For example:

Researchers can:

  • Integrate intersectional frameworks into study designs to ensure a whole-person approach is taken into account.
  • Examine systemic and structural contributors, not just individual-level outcomes.
  • Report findings in ways that are accessible beyond academic audiences.
  • Collaborate with advocates and community organizations throughout the research process.

Advocates can:

  • Center the voices and needs of immigrant survivors in program development and outreach.
  • Advocate for policies that reduce barriers to safety, reporting, and support services.
  • Build partnerships across legal, healthcare, and social service systems.
  • Provide culturally and linguistically responsive resources.

As community members, we can:

  • Learn how immigration status and systemic factors shape survivor experiences.
  • Support organizations doing work at the intersection of violence and immigration.
  • Listen to and amplify survivor voices, centering their experiences.
  • Engage in conversations that promote awareness, accountability, and action.

Keep scrolling for resources as you turn awareness into action this #SAAM!

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Resources

Research & Reports

Legal & Immigration Support

Advocacy & Support Organizations

Culturally Specific & Global Resources

References:

Alliance for Immigrant Survivors. (2025). Fear and silence: 2025 insights from advocates for immigrant survivors. https://traumaresearchnotes.blog/wp-content/uploads/2026/04/2667c-ais-report_fear-and-silence_dec2025.pdf

Asian Pacific Institute on Gender-Based Violence. (2019). Immigrant survivors fear reporting violence. https://www.api-gbv.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/FAQs-ImmigrationEnforcementVictimServicesPrograms-byAPI-GBV_Dec-2024.pdf

Chu, T., Keller, A. S., & Rasmussen, A. (2012). Effects of post-migration factors on PTSD outcomes among immigrant survivors of political violence. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 15(5), 890–897. doi.org

Danish Institute for International Studies. (2020). No place for me here: The challenges for Ethiopian male return migrants. https://www.diis.dk/en/research/no-place-for-me-here-the-challenges-for-ethiopian-male-return-migrants

Erez, E., & Ammar, N. (2003). Violence against immigrant women and systemic responses: An exploratory study. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. NCJRS Abstract

Freedom for Immigrants. (n.d.). Sexual assault. Freedom for Immigrants. https://www.freedomforimmigrants.org/sexual-assault

Kuschminder, K. (2018, July 17). Survival strategies for fleeing Eritrea. Refugees Deeply. https://www.newsdeeply.com/refugees/articles/2018/07/17/survival-strategies-for-fleeing-eritrea

Li, S. S., Liddell, B. J., & Nickerson, A. (2016). The Relationship Between Post-Migration Stress and Psychological Disorders in Refugees and Asylum Seekers. Current psychiatry reports, 18(9), 82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0723-0

Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders). (n.d.). Shocking increase in sexual violence reported in the Darién Gap. https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/latest/shocking-increase-sexual-violence-reported-darien-gap

Mixed Migration Centre. (2025, January). A sharper lens on vulnerability: A statistical analysis of migrant youth vulnerability in Sudan and Ethiopia 2022–2023. https://mixedmigration.org/resource/migrant-youth-vulnerability-in-sudan-and-ethiopia/

Moreno, C. (2017, April 10). Houston police announce decrease in Latinos reporting rape, violent crimes. HuffPost. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/houston-police-announces-decrease-in-latinos-reporting-rape-violent-crimes_n_58ebd5fae4b0df7e204455f4

Morrison, A. M., Campbell, J. K., Sharpless, L., & Martin, S. L. (2024). Intimate Partner Violence and Immigration in the United States: A Systematic Review. Trauma, violence & abuse, 25(1), 846–861. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380231165690

National Organization for Women. (2017). Learn more: Intimate partner violence & immigrant women. https://now.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Learn-More-IPV-and-Immigrant-Womenpdf.pdf

Robillard, C., Ives, N., Hordyk, S. R., & Salami, B. (2018). Responding to the structural violence of migrant domestic work: Insights from participatory action research with migrant caregivers in Canada. Journal of Family Violence, 33(4), 283–296. doi.org 

Semple, K. (2017, April 30). Too scared to report sexual abuse. The fear: Deportation. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/30/us/immigrants-deportation-sexual-abuse.html

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). (2015). Estándares operativos para la protección de refugiados en situaciones de emergencia. https://www.acnur.org/fileadmin/Documentos/Publicaciones/2015/10228.pdf

UN Women & International Labour Organization. (2019). Handbook: Addressing violence and harassment against women in the world of work. https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2019/Addressing-violence-and-harassment-against-women-in-the-world-of-work-en.pdf

U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. (2025). Victims of human trafficking: T nonimmigrant status. https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/victims-of-human-trafficking-t-nonimmigrant-status

U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. (2025). Victims of criminal activity: U nonimmigrant status. https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/victims-of-criminal-activity-u-nonimmigrant-status

Voolma, H. (2018). Love is not a passport to Sweden: Intimate partner violence against migrant women and the proliferation of rights’ statuses (UN Women Discussion Paper No. 24). UN Women. https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2018/9/discussion-paper-intimate-partner-violence-against-migrant-women

Watson, Julie. (2006). Women Risk Rape, Death in U.S. Journey. New York, NY: Associated Press.

Published by Anne P. DePrince, PhD

Author of "Every 90 Seconds: Our Common Cause Ending Violence Against Women" (Oxford University Press), Anne is Distinguished University Professor of Psychology and Associate Vice Provost of Public Good Strategy and Research at the University of Denver. She directs the Traumatic Stress Studies Group.

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